The early years of the Ming Dynasty were characterized by consolidation of power and intimidation. However, the organization of government administration deprived the emperors of assistance from traditional advisors. The enormous work load meant government was not as effective as it could have been. At the same time, the power of the court [G 07 / eunuchs] increased dramatically over that of all previous dynasties.
Improvements in rural society were promoted and farmers enjoyed peace and prosperity. The system of entry to the civil service by examination was also restored early in the dynasty. Relations with China's neighbors were dependent upon treaties, tributes and trade. In 1368, the Ming expelled the last of the [G 12 / Mongols] from the north. However, Mongol militarism was far from over and was viewed as a major threat to China. Relations with Japan, on the other hand, were cordial and trade between the two nations flourished. This lasted until 1592 when the Japanese invaded Korea. Relations were restored in 1603.
From 1435, Ming China suffered from a series of unremarkable rulers. The rebellion of Li Zicheng in the far northwest precipitated the downfall of the dynasty. With the Ming army preoccupied in the north by the [G 11 / Manchu] threat, Li Zicheng's forces entered a virtually defenceless Beijing. The last Ming emperor consequently committed suicide. The Manchus pursued Li's mob and invaded Beijing in 1644, usurping the throne to establish their own dynasty.
THE MING BUILDERS:
Although the Ming frontier was initially vulnerable, in the 300 years they ruled, they built up one of the most closed borders China has ever known. Not all agreed with the wall-building policy, but it was justified in 1482 when the Ming won a major victory over the Mongols. Further justification, even though it came much later, was when the wall defending Beijing held off the Mongol raiders in the late 1500s. However, walls even then were not seen as a permanent solution for defence.
Ming rulers during the first half of the 16th century were weak and incompetent. By the middle of the 16th century wall building became the Ming's only policy of dealing with its adversaries. It peaked between 1550 and 1580 and included improvements in Beijing's eastern defences. Proposals for further defence walls were still being made when the Manchus rode into Beijing and toppled the Ming emperor. Ming policies, like those of earlier dynasties, were apparent from looking at the ruins of their walls: where they were built was where diplomacy with nomads failed, and the more that was built, the greater the hostility.
THE FIRST MING PERIOD:
The first phase of Ming wall building lasted from 1368 to 1449 when the Ming were defeated by the Mongols at Tumu. Ming security until then had rested on its superior military reputation. Defence during this stage consisted of garrisons on the northern frontier and the fortification of important passes. These were dotted throughout the [G 22 / steppe].
THE SECOND MING PERIOD:
The second phase of the Ming Dynasty lasted until about the end of the 15th century. It was during this period that the Ming lost its reputation and power on the steppe. The Mongols began to regroup and moved into the [G 15 / Ordos] - the land of the Yellow River Loop where neither the Ming nor the nomads had established an enduring presence.
The first major wall was built south of the Ordos Desert in 1474. It was built by two men in [L3 204 / two parts] during a breathing space brought about by a 1473 offensive victory against the Mongols. Women and children left behind in the Mongol's main camp were the Ming soldiers' target.
THE THIRD MING PERIOD:
The third phase of the Ming period began after the decision in the late 1540s not to conduct a massive campaign in the Ordos to re-establish the might of the dynasty.
In any event, the Ming no longer had the capability to conduct such an offensive. Instead, it was decided to build even larger walls as a barrier to the nomads (a complete turnaround in military policy and attitude). Walls of the third period are characterized by stone construction and elaborate ramparts.
